As we saw from last month, wheat is the most cultivated crop in the world and is the biggest contributor to plant-based protein-containing food on earth; it also has, unfortunately, developed a negative reputation due to increasing incidences of wheat and gluten intolerances in people. However, it is still a viable and nutritious food for a large part of the population of the world. This month we will start to learn about the different varieties of wheat.
Wheat belongs to a group of wild grasses known as Triticae from which many domestic grains are found, including wheat, barley, and rye. A further subgroup is known as Triticum, which encompasses all wheat species. Within these species are many different varieties. Currently, the most widely cultivated wheat species (95% of all wheat) is common wheat (Triticum aestivum), also known as bread wheat. This wheat is a spontaneous hybridization from species of three different wild grasses, including two wild wheats. Common wheat is further divided into many different varieties, classified either by the growing season, colour, protein, starch, or gluten content. The second-most cultivated wheat is durum wheat (Triticum durum) used in making couscous and pastas. Club wheat (Triticum compactum), closely related to bread wheat, is a softer type of wheat, and is used in pastries such as cakes, cookies, crackers, and flour. Wheat is also used in the creation of biofuels, alcohol, toiletries, many household products, and food for livestock. Other cultivated wheat species include spelt, einkorn, and emmer.
Wheat grasses began to be domesticated by humans when they were discovered to be edible and to have a pleasing flavour. Before domestication, wheat consisted of a number of species of wild wheat. Two species are found in western Asia and Northern Africa known as the Fertile Crescent. These two species, wild eikorn and wild emmer were considered the first ancestors of all wheat species known today. Another wild wheat species known as spelt had its origins in a similar area of the world but was domesticated at a later time than the two other species. These wheat species are still being grown; however, in limited quantities compared to other domestic wheats.
Today wheat consists of thousands of different varieties, all derived from the original wild wheat species. Hybrids within the original species were created to increase crop yields, to withstand climate extremes, to resist pests and diseases, to be able to be grown in poor soil, to enhance flavour, to improve nutrition, and to promote ease of harvesting and production. Wheat is a self-pollinating plant; this allowed for many distinct domestic varieties to be created. Early hybridization methods consisted of growing two wheat crops together, and cross-pollinating them to produce a new variety with characteristics of both parent crops. Over time, some of these hybrids would produce the desired traits that farmers were looking for. This was a slow process, consisting of many crosses until a hybrid was created that improved on the original varieties. As we learned last month, newer wheat varieties have been created artificially.
Wheat is a cool season crop, with an ideal harvest temperature of around 16C (60F). Depending on the area of the world, wheat is either grown as a winter or spring crop. Winter wheat is planted in the fall and is harvested in the early summer. Spring wheat is planted in the early spring and is harvested in the late summer. Wheat needs a minimum of 100 frost-free days in which to germinate and grow, with most crops yielding a harvest after 120 days. Precipitation of 45-50 cm (15-20 inches) of rain over the growing season is necessary to yield a good crop.
WHEAT CLASSIFICATIONS
Wheat species can be categorized into two main branches, free-threshing vs hulled wheats. Most wheat used for food must be processed. Once the grain is harvested from the field, it must be threshed. The process of threshing works to remove the edible part of the grain from the rest of the plant, the husk or hull—the hard, inedible outer portion of the grain. Traditionally, threshing was usually accomplished by hand or by machine. Before the mid-1800s, grain was still threshed by hand, either by having animals tread on it, or by people using flails to beat the grain. The next step was winnowing to remove the hull, or chaff, from the grain. This was done by throwing the grain into the air, with the lighter chaff being blown away in the wind. We see many references to chaff in the Bible, often referring to sinners as chaff, indicating the part of the grain that is removed as it has no value. “Whose fan is in His hand, and He will thoroughly purge His floor, and will gather the wheat into His garner; but the chaff He will burn with fire unquenchable.” Luke 3:17
Since the mid-1800s machines known as combines could harvest, thresh, and winnow the grain while it is still in the field. Milling and rolling further processed the grain to be made into flour. This ease in production due to technological advances led to the massive increase in wheat crops being planted and sold.
Hulled Wheats
The three main original wild wheats, emmer, eikorn and spelt are hulled wheats. As mentioned, wild emmer and eikorn grew in the Fertile Crescent area of the world. This area of the world is where the Old and New Testament nations were situated. These crops were used by the ancient Egyptians and Babylonians, as well as by the Romans later on. They were also used by the Israelites. Spelt’s origins are not as clear as the other two ancient wheat grains. Historical references show it was used by ancient civilizations in the Middle East and Europe. It was known to be the staple food of the Roman armies.
Cultivation and repeated harvesting and sowing of these wild grains led to the creation of domestic strains. Initially when these grains were domesticated, these descendants of wild wheats also contained strong hulls.
In free-threshing wheats, the grain is easily released during the threshing process. But in hulled wheats the husk of the grain is very tough and adheres very tightly to the grain kernel. Therefore, when threshed, the strong hulls do not release the grain, but instead the grain breaks up into small hulled units known as spikelets. To release the grain, these spikelets had to be either pounded to loosen the hull or were soaked in water. The process of pounding often left the bran of the grain stuck to the hull, thus losing vital nutrients from the grain. The benefit of these grains with tough outer husks is that the spikelets could be stored for a long time without spoiling.
Eventually free-threshing wheat varieties were developed, and hulled wheat varieties grew out of favour, due to the difficulties in harvesting the grain for use. Today, technology has advanced so that the hull of these wheat species can be removed without damaging the bran layer. This has led to the more recent increase in popularity of the hulled wheat grains. This is due to the fact that these grains are often sold in their whole grain form. They are also ancient grains, which attracts consumers who are concerned about the composition of the newer varieties of common wheat on the market today. These ancient grains consist today in the same structure, composition, taste and appearance as they did thousands of years ago.
There is a slight difference in wild wheat versus domestic wheat; however, these differences were developed, not by hybridizing the plants, but through selection and cultivation of those of the wild plants which contained the traits which allowed humans to harvest them more readily. When wild wheat grains ripen, their seed heads shatter and fall to the ground; this allows the plant to regerminate and grow another crop. When wild wheat began to be domesticated, humans selected wild plants that contained a mutation where the seed head would remain intact until the stalk rotted, so that it could be harvested as a food. This would not have been viable in the wild, as a new generation of crops would not be able to grow from a seed head that did not scatter its seeds. However, it was perfect for humans who could harvest
the intact seed head; thus, the domestication of wheat crops were established. Another important characteristic that facilitated the domestication of einkorn and other ancient wheat grains was the fact that the plants are self-pollinating. This meant that the desirable traits of the plants could be perpetuated without the risk of cross-fertilization with other wild plants with less desirable traits.
Farro
In Italy, and in other parts of the world, the three hulled grain species are collectively known as farro. Though many think that farro is one grain, the word farro refers to the three wheat species that are known as “hulled” or “covered” wheats—spelt, emmer, and einkorn. Farro grains are very popular in Italy, where they have been grown for centuries, with the three varieties being called farro grande (spelt), farro medio (emmer), and farro piccolo (eikorn).
Einkorn
Einkorn, Triticum monococcum, is the oldest known wheat and is considered man’s first wheat. It is also a pure ancient grain as it has never been hybridized. It is the most primitive wheat in the world, consisting only of 14 chromosomes, versus modern wheat which contains 42 chromosomes. Because einkorn has a simple genetic makeup, its gluten is weaker than all other wheats, and is more likely to be tolerated by those with a gluten sensitivity. Einkorn also does not contain the D chromosome, which is implicated in wheat allergies. Once emmer was cultivated, the use of einkorn dropped. Until recently, einkorn was rarely cultivated and almost became extinct. It has now had a resurgence due the interest in ancient grains, and is considered a super food. It is grown in Italy and some parts of the United States. It can be grown in cooler climates than emmer. The einkorn plant is low-yielding which reduces its attraction as a crop. However, it can grow on poor, dry, marginal soils, where other wheat cannot grow. Einkorn is primarily eaten boiled as a whole grain or used as a porridge. It is a popular food in northern Provence in France. It is grown as an animal feed in several countries. It has a higher protein content than modern wheats and is considered more nutritious because it also has higher levels of fat, phosphorus, potassium, Vitamin B6, and beta-carotene. Its high lutein content protects the eyes.
Emmer
Emmer, triticum dicoccum, is a hybrid of einkorn and a wild grass; this hybridization occurred through natural selection, long before wheat was domesticated. Nowadays, emmer is most widely grown in the mountainous regions of Italy. It is able to produce good yields in poor soil and is able to resist molds that are prevalent in wet areas. Emmer whole grains can be found in most supermarkets, and emmer breads can be found in bakeries. Emmer is also used to make pasta. It is considered the best quality farro for cooking, and is often used in its whole grain form in the traditional farro soup, in salads, pilafs and breakfast cereals. The popular dish, farrotto, in Italy is similar to risotto, as its starch is similar to the starch in Arborio rice. Both einkorn and emmer are excellent for baking. Emmer is a traditional food plant in Ethiopia, and its high levels of fibre, magnesium, proteins and vitamins improve the nutritional status of its people. Both einkorn and emmer are a hearty grain, with a pleasant chewiness and a nutty sweetness. They also contain less gluten than modern wheat, which makes them more tolerable for those who react to gluten. Emmer is also higher in micronutrients such as minerals and antioxidants from the flavonoid family. Whole grain emmer is a low glycemic index food, helping to keep blood sugar levels down. As we learned in past months, all whole grains are beneficial for heart health, gastrointestinal health, cholesterol levels, blood sugar, and cancer prevention.
Emmer grains can be purchased as whole, or in semi-pearled or pearled forms. Whole emmer (often just called farro) is the most nutritious, but must be soaked overnight prior to cooking and then takes longer to cook (60 minutes). The whole grain is very nutritious, with one-half cup containing 8 grams of protein and fibre. It is also high in calcium and contains various vitamins and minerals. It has a nutty taste with a chewy texture.
Pearling involves removing the inedible hull that surrounds the grain. However, it also either partly or wholly removes the nutritious germ and bran of the grain leaving only the less-nutritious endosperm. Cooking time is cut in half (30 minutes) and does not require soaking prior to cooking. The taste is milder with a less chewy texture. In whole emmer, the grain is hulled using a gentler process which leaves most of the bran and germ intact. If the packaging is not clear as to how the grain has been processed, you can tell if you have purchased either whole emmer (farro) or pearled based on the cooking instructions. Emmer is also sold cracked and ground into a flour, which can be used to make pasta and baked goods.
Because all three farro grains have a strong outer husk, whole-grain farro can be stored indefinitely in a cupboard. Pearled farro can be kept in a freezer for up to six months.
Spelt
Spelt, known as Triticum spelta, is a hybrid of emmer and a wild grass, and remained popular until combine harvesters were introduced which could process free-threshing wheats quickly. It was no longer a benefit to farmers to grow spelt over free-threshing wheat. Thus spelt fell out of favour. Since the 1980s, spelt has been rediscovered in Europe and other parts of the world. Special dehulling machines were created to remove the tough outer husk of the grain. Germany, Austria, and Switzerland grow spelt; in these countries spelt bread can be easily found in grocery stores and bakeries. Unripe spelt grains are also dried and eaten because of its pleasant flavour. Now spelt is considered a health food and is an option to common wheat products, thus its popularity has surged in recent years. Spelt is higher in antioxidants, manganese, zinc, and copper, and protein and lower in phytic acid than modern wheat varieties.
All grains contain phytic acid, and it is often referred to as an anti-nutrient because it reduces the absorption of minerals such as iron and zinc. However, when grains are eaten as part of a well-balanced diet, phytic acid is not a problem. It only reduces the absorption of these minerals when eaten at the same time. If foods containing iron and zinc are eaten at other times of the day, their absorption will not be decreased. The only time it is a concern is when grains make up the bulk of one’s diet. However, the form of processing of the grain will affect the phytic acid in grains. Traditional methods of preparing whole grains such as soaking, sprouting and fermenting can significantly reduce the amount of phytic acid in the grain.
We find many references to these ancient grains in the Bible, with the first mention found in Isaiah. In Isaiah 28:27 we read, “For the fitches are not threshed with a threshing instrument, . . . but the fitches are beaten out with a staff.” This is a clear reference to the way that hulled wheats are processed. The understanding is that fitches refer to emmer, the grain used at that time by the Israelites. In Ezekiel 4:9, the famous Ezekiel Bread recipe also refers to fitches (emmer).
“The tares (chaff) closely resembled the wheat while the blades were green; but when the field was white for the harvest, the worthless weeds bore no likeness to the wheat that bowed under the weight of its full, ripe heads. Sinners who make a pretension of piety mingle for a time with the true followers of Christ, and the semblance of Christianity is calculated to deceive many; but in the harvest of the world there will be no likeness between good and evil. Then those who have joined the church, but who have not joined Christ, will be manifest.” –Christ’s Object Lessons, p. 74
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FREE-THRESHING WHEATS