The Assyrian Enuma Elish Epic – Part 3

The Tower of Babel

by Idel Suarez, Jr., Ph.D.

“And the Lord came down to see the city and a tower, which the children of men builded…. the name of it called Babel.” Genesis 11:5,9.

The Assyrian Enuma Elish epic not only describes the battle between Michael and Lucifer and the week of creation, it also gives “an account of the building of the tower of Babel” (1). It is a “pseudo-Genesis,” because it contains accounts of Genesis chapter 1 through 11, which was common knowledge among the ancients. Moreover, it states that the ancient Towel of Babel served as the foundation for the mighty city of Babylon.

The Enuma Elish epic corroborates with the book of Genesis on the chief architect, builders, name, location, structure, materials, and purpose of the Tower of Babel (2). As with many pagan myths, legends, and records of the past, the Enuma Elish epic is mixed with polytheism, idolatry, and spiritual rituals. Nevertheless, its core message strikes a clear note on its common ancestry with the book of Genesis, both of which were derived from the Oral Bible.

The story of the Tower of Babel is alluded to in many other ancient writings of Greeks, Hebrews, and Mesopotamian historians, since it was the most important event of the post-diluvian era. One of the most notable Western writers, Herodotus, the father of history, gives a detailed description of the second Tower of Babel in Babylon. He visited the site in the fifth century B.C. while it was still standing (3).

Flavius Josephus, the first century Jewish historian and contemporary of the apostles, also describes the Tower of Babel and its construction in detail in his book, the Antiquities of the Jews (4). Yet the Enuma Elish epic and the book of Genesis shall serve as our primary sources on the ancient Tower of Babel.

Its Architect: Nudimmud or Nimrod

The clay tablet VI of the Enuma Elish epic states: “The work was beyond comprehension; As artfully planned by Marduk, did Nudimmud create it” (2).

The Enuma Elish epic implies that Nudimmud was responsible for creating the Tower of Babel.
Nudimmud may be the Biblical Nimrod mentioned in Genesis. The book of Genesis states that the chief architect and engineer of the Tower of Babel was Nimrod, the mighty one. “Nimrod: he began to be a mighty one in the earth.” “And the beginning of his kingdom was Babel… in the land of Shinar.” Genesis 10:8,10.

In the Septuagint version of Genesis, Nimrod is called “Nebrod” and he is called a “giant” (5).
The Septuagint version was the first translation ever made of the Hebrew scriptures. It was translated in the island of Pharos, across the city of Alexandria in Egypt, at the time of the great Alexandrian Library. King Ptolemy Philadelphius (285-246 B.C.) financed the project to have the Hebrew scriptures translated into Greek so as to add it to his royal library in Alexandria. The translation is called “Septuagint,” also abbreviated LXX, because the Hebrew scriptures were translated into Greek by 70 or 72 Hebrew scholars in the third century B.C. (5).

Likewise, the Latin Vulgate version of Genesis also gives a different rendition of Nimrod, by using the name “Nemroth” (6). The Latin Vulgate version dates back to the year circa 405 A.D. and was the work of Jerome (340-420 A.D.). It is considered one of the greatest translations ever done on the Holy Scriptures. Thus, it should not be strange to suppose that Nudimmud, as it appears in the Enuma Elish epic, may also be another rendition of that mighty giant, The Geneva Bible from 1603, containing comments of the great XVI Reformers, states in its marginal notes for Genesis 11:2:

“In the year 130 after the flood, to wit, Nimrod and his company” were responsible for building the Tower of Babel (7).
According to Genesis, Nimrod was the first city builder after the flood, and the beginning of his city-state projects was Babel or Babylon. He also became the first emperor or mighty one to govern over the affairs of men in the post-diluvian era.

Nimrod was also a “mighty hunter.” “He was a mighty hunter before the Lord: wherefore it is said, Even as Nimrod the mighty hunter before the Lord.” Genesis 10:9. He was so skillful in his hunting techniques and enterprises that he became a legend in his own time. Nimrod may have provided security to the people of his day by hunting down the large wild animals that roamed the post-diluvian world. Saber-tooth tigers, lions, and possibly some dinosaurs, which survived the flood in Noah’s ark, became a threat to the inhabitants of the post-flood era. Nimrod was able to defeat these animals and provide protection to the people. He thus became their leader in a hunting and gathering society.

Nimrod, according to different sources, literally means “to rebel” (8,9,10). Following in his grandfather Ham’s steps, he rebelled against God, against His people, and against His word. Since God had proclaimed that the descendants of Ham would be servants and slaves, Ham’s son, Cush, named his own son Nimrod–meaning, we shall rebel against God’s predictions and my son shall be a lord and not a servant (9).

“And Noah awoke from his wine, and knew what his younger son had done unto him. And he said, Cursed be Canaan; a servant of servants shall he be unto his brethren.” Genesis 9:24,25. Noah, looking into the future, foresaw how the descendants of Ham, his younger son, would end up as slaves. Noah thus foretold the curse to come upon Canaan, who was the son of Ham. The descendants of Ham would be servants or slaves to the descendants of Shem and Japheth.
Josephus writes, “Now it was Nimrod who excited them to such an affront and contempt of God…. He also said he would be revenged on God, if he [God] should have a mind to drown the world again; for that he would build a tower too high for the waters to be able to reach! and that he would avenge himself on God for destroying their forefathers.” “Now the multitude were very ready to follow the determination of Nimrod… and they built a tower” (4).

Its Builders: Anunnaki and Their Division

Nimrod convinced the inhabitants of the plain of Shinar to build the Tower of Babel. These were the post-diluvian inhabitants of our planet, the progenitors of all living people on earth today. They were the descendents of Noah and contemporaries of Peleg.

Although the book of Genesis does not give any physical description of the builders of the Tower of Babel, the Enuma Elish epic does mention their name and ethnicity. Geographically speaking, one may expect the builders to have looked much like their descendants, which later inhabited the plain of Shinar or Mesopotamia. The Enuma Elish epic calls the builders the “Anunnaki” and described them as being the “black-headed ones” (2). The Assyrians, Babylonians, Persians, Medians, Elamites, Iraquis, and Iranians were and are “black-headed.”

The Anunnaki, according to Babylonian beliefs, were “celestial gods”- demigods who assisted in building the Tower of Babel (2). Although the post-diluvians actually built the ziggurat of Babel, they consulted demons, foul spirits, and Satan in their rebellious endeavor.

Coincidentally, both Genesis and the Enuma Elish epic associate the builders of the Tower of Babel with a time of dividing. The Enuma Elish epic says there were 600 Anunnaki which were divided by Marduk.

Clay tablet VI of the Enuma Elish epic states: “Marduk, the king of the gods divided all the Anunnaki above and below…. In heaven and earth six hundred (thus) he settled. After he had ordered all the instructions, to the Anunnaki of heaven and earth had allotted their portions” (2).

The Peleg of Genesis literally means in Hebrew “division.” “And unto Eber were born two sons: the name of one was Peleg; for in his days was the earth divided.” “And by these were the nations divided in the earth after the flood.” Genesis 10:25, 32.

The book of Genesis records that when Eber, the father of the Hebrews, witnessed the birth of his son Peleg, the Tower of Babel enterprise was interrupted and its builders dispersed throughout Asia, Africa, Europe, Australia, and America. Peleg was the fourth generation born after the flood or the sixth generation after Noah. He was the great-great grandson of Shem, the son of Noah. Peleg received his name as a historical marker of the dividing of the earth and mass dispersion which occurred from the Tower of Babel.

Some commentators even suggest that the division which occurred at the birth of Peleg may have also been a physical separation between continents. Dr. Adam Clarke is one of such proponents who sustains this idea in his commentary. “A separation of continents and islands from the main land; the earth parts having been united into one great continent previously to the days of Peleg” (11).

The major continents and islands clearly fit together geographically as pieces of a grand puzzle. It is likely that after the flood and perhaps during the dissolution of the Tower of Babel that the land masses were separated by God to keep people from gathering together in one place and to ensure that they would replenish the earth.

Its Name: Babel or Babylon

Two old versions of the Bible, the Septuagint and Latin Vulgate mentions “Babylon” instead of Babel in Genesis 10:10 (5,6). In other words, according to the Hebrew scholars and translators of the LXX version of the third century B.C., and Jerome of the fifth century A.D., Babel was located in Babylon. Babel served as the foundation stones for the subsequent lofty city of Babylon, capital of the Babylonian empire. Babylon, that great city, was constructed on the same site as the ancient Tower of Babel.

Clay tablet V of the Enuma Elish epic states: “Babylon, which thou didst give a fine name” (12).

Clay tablet VI of the Enuma Elish epic adds: “Having built a stage-tower as high as Apsu, they set up in it an abode for Marduk, Enlil, (and) Ea in their presence he adorned (it) in grandeur…

This is Babylon, the place that is your home! Make merry in its precincts, occupy its broad [places]1” (2).

The Enuma Elish epic agrees with the LXX and Latin Vulgate versions of Genesis. Babylon first emerged as a high “stage-tower.” Both accounts agree that the Tower of Babel was at the same location as the ancient city of Babylon, and may have even been at the same spot as the later ziggurat of Babylon.

Its Location: the Plains of Shinar

Where was the Tower of Babel built? The Bible is clear that it was built on the plains of Shinar in the middle East. “And it came to pass, as they journeyed from the East, that they found a plain in the land of Shinar; and they dwelt there.” Genesis 11:2.

It was in the plain of Shinar that Babel or Babylon as a kingdom was built by Nimrod and his black-headed followers together with Erech, Accad, and Calneh. Like Babylon, Accad or Akkad has been excavated in the valley of Mesopotamia. “And the beginning of his kingdom was Babel, and Erech, and Accad, and Calneh, in the land of Shinar.” Genesis 10:10.

Geographically the plain between the two great rivers Tigris and Euphrates is known as Mesopotamia. Mesopotamia, in turn, was subdivided into two great regions during the Assyrian and Babylonian eras. The Northern region was known as Akkad and the Southern region was known as Sumer (13). It is probable that the land of Shinar was Sumer. Babylon, which was toward the South, belonged to the region of Sumer. Whereas Nineveh, which was towards the North, belonged to the region of Akkad.

The book of Daniel, written during Babylon’s height and glory in the seventh century B.C., further confirms that Babel was the same Babylon of old which was majestically edified on the river banks of the great Euphrates river.

“Nebuchadnezzar king of Babylon [came] unto Jerusalem, and besieged it. And… the vessels of the house of God… he [Nebuchadnezzar] carried into the land of Shinar to the house of his god; and he brought the vessels into the treasure house of his god.” Daniel 1:1,2.

Thus, the prophet Daniel considered Babylon to be the land of Shinar, the city which the great Nebuchadnezzar II rebuilt. Nebuchadnezzar II reigned from 606 to 562 B.C. (13).

The Geneva Bible of 1603, in its marginal notes of Genesis 11:2, adds that the land of Shinar “was later called Caldea” (7). The Babylonians in the Old Testament were called Chaldeans.

Foretelling of Judah’s 70 year captivity in Babylon, Ezekiel said, “I will bring him to Babylon to the land of the Chaldeans.” Ezekiel 12:13.

Clay tablets dating back to the seventh century B.C. have been unearthed in Babylon recording the reconstruction of the ziggurat of Babylon. These attest that both Nabopolassar, Nebuchadnezzar IPs father, and Nebuchadnezzar rebuilt the ziggurat of Babylon, from the ruins and the foundation of the Tower of Babel. This second construction was renamed Etemenanki, the new tower or ziggurat of Babylon.

Nabopolassar had written: “Marduk, my Lord, ordered me regarding Etemenanki, the ziggurat of Babylon which before my government had decayed and was ruined, to place a foundation at the depth of hell and to make its top reach the heavens” (14).

Nebuchadnezzar later inscribed: “Etemenanki, the ziggurat of Babylon, whose field was purified by Nabopolassar, king of Babylon, my father and progenitor… laid the foundation in the depths of hell… but did not build its top: to raise Etemenanki, to finalize its height to heaven, I intervened…” (14).

Figuratively, the fact that the ancients believed that Babylon was built over hell has great spiritual applications to the book of Revelation’s description of a spiritual Babylon in the end of times.

Its Structure: A City and A Tower

Twice in the Genesis account the Tower of Babel is described as being both a city and a high tower. “And they said, Go to, let us build us a city and a tower, whose top may reach unto heaven…

And the Lord came down to see the city and the tower, which the children of men buNded.” Genesis 11:4,5. The Tower of Babel became the great meeting or assembly area of the city. It was like an ancient public and religious skyscraper surrounded by private dwellings. The builders had said, “let us build… a tower, whose top may reach unto heaven.” Genesis 11:5.

The Enuma Elish epic also records that the major building of the city would be a “high” “stagetower.”
Clay tablet VI of the Enuma Elish epic states: “Having built a stage-tower as high as Apsu, they set up in it an abode for Marduk, Enlil, (and) Ea in their presence he adorned (it) in grandeur…” (2).

Herodotus, who visited Babylon in the fifth century B.C., describes the city as being built “on a broad plain” and being “an exact square.” “In the middle of the precinct there was a tower of solid masonry, a furlong in length and breadth, upon which was raised a second tower, and on that a third, and so on up to eight. The ascent to the top is on the outside, by a path, which winds round all the towers…. On the topmost tower there is a spacious temple, and inside the temple stands a couch of unusual size, richly adorned, with a golden table by its side” (3).

The second Tower of Babel, Etemenanki, rebuilt by Nabopoiassar and Nebuchadnezzar, was eight stories high and had a spacious temple at the top. The entire city of Babylon was constructed around it very much like the ancient Babel which, also consisted of “a city and a tower.” Genesis 11:4. Ancient Babylon was built over ancient Babel, and its eight-story tower probably over the foundation of the ancient Tower of Babel.

Its Materials: Brickwork

The Enuma Elish epic highlights the main material used in building the Tower of Babel. It was brick and molded brick, which formed the walls of the huge pyramid. Mayan pyramids and the Egyptian pyramids were not made from brick, but from stones. Yet the Tower of Babel was built from baked or molded brick.

Clay tablet VI of the Enuma Elish states: “When Marduk heard this, brightly glowed his features, like the day: ‘Like that of lofty Babylon, whose building you have requested, let its brickwork be fashioned” (2).

“The Anunnaki applied the implement; for one whole year they molded bricks. When the second year arrived, they raised high the head of Esagila equaling Apsu” (2).

The book of Genesis agrees with the description of the Enuma Elish epic on the building material of the Tower of Babel. “And they said, Go to, let us make brick, and burn them thoroughly. And they had brick for stone, and slime had they for mortar.” Genesis 11:3.

It is evident that the author of Genesis, Moses, was familiar with the Egyptian pyramids built of stone and mortar. Yet he emphatically records that the Tower of Babel was not made of stone and mortar, but of baked brick and slime. Dr. Adam Clarke says that slime means bitumen or asphalt. The LXX version actually says “asphaltos” (5). Asphalt “occurs naturally in surface deposits, but commercially today it is mostly made in oil refineries by the distillation of crude oils” (15). Interestingly, intil this day the lands of ancient Babylon, modern Iraq and Iran, are known as rich oil and asphalt deposits.

Josephus adds that the Tower of Babel was “made of bitumen [asphalt], that it might not be liable to admit water” (4). Nimrod and his associates wanted to make sure that their Tower of Babel was water-proof so that they would not die from the overflowing waters of any future flood. They disbelieved God’s word and promise that “neither shall all flesh be cut off any more by the waters of a flood; neither shall there any more be a flood to destroy the earth.” Genesis 9:11.

Furthermore, the clay tablets earlier quoted regarding Nabopolassar and Nebuchadnezzar’s statements also attest to the use of baked bricks and asphalt in the construction of the second Tower of Babel. Nabopolassar wrote, “I molded and… ordered that an innumerable number of bricks be baked, like the rain of the heavens. By means of the river Euphrates I ordered that an immense amount of… asphalt be brought” (14). Nebuchadnezzar adds, “Nabopolassar… my father… constructed four walls of asphalt and bricks to a height of 30 yards…” (14).

Archeologist H.J. Schmid calculated that just the first level of Etemenanki, or the ziggurat of Babylon, required between 10 to 14 million bricks to be built and forty years to complete the entire structure (14).

its Purpose: An Ancient Basilica

The LXX version uses the word “basilica” instead of “kingdom” in its description of Babel in Genesis 10:10 (5).
What is a “basilica”? The Oxford Dictionary defines “basilica” as “an ancient Roman public hall with an apse and colonnades, used as a lawcourt and place of assembly.” It later became “a church having privileges from the pope” (15). According to the Greeks and Romans, the basilica was an ancient royal palace fit for kings and a royal family. With time, the basilica must have become a center of pagan worship where nobility adored their gods.

The Tower of Babel was not only a tower, ziggurat or pyramid, and a city, it was also a place of heathen worship or a shrine-something like the modern basilicas of Rome. The papacy inherited the ancient pagan Roman basilicas and christened them with Christian names: The Basilica of St. Peter, of St. John Latareno, of St. Paul, and of St. Mary. The Tower of Babel was built as a pagan basilica. It was a center of idolatry and polytheism. It was a shrine to worship the gods and served as a place to communicate with the dead. It was an habitation of spirits and demons. It was a place of human sacrifices. It was the great master type of all other subsequent pyramids and ziggurats built by the Mayans, Assyrians, and Egyptians. Monarchy, spiritualism, idolatry, and human sacrifices were indelibly mixed as the chief tenants of a pagan basilica.

“These Babel builders determined to keep their community united in one body, and to found a monarchy that should eventually embrace the whole earth. Thus their city would become the metropolis of a universal empire.”

“The whole undertaking was designed to exalt still further the pride of its projectors and to turn the minds of future generations away from God and lead them into idolatry.”

“When the tower had been partially completed, a portion of it was occupied as a dwelling place for the builders; other apartments, splendidly furnished and adorned, were devoted to their idols. The people rejoiced in their success, and praised the gods of silver and gold, and set themselves against the Ruler of heaven and earth.”

“As the minds of the people were darkened by idolatry, he [Satan] led them to counterfeit these [ceremonial] offerings and sacrifice their own children upon the altars of their gods” (16).

The description of the Tower of Babel in the Enuma Elish epic is abundant with references to royalty, polytheism, sacrifices, and spiritualism. The Tower of Babel is described as being a “sanctuary”, as having a “throne,” as being inhabited by monarchs-the “great gods,”-and as a place where “offerings” and “incense” were burned.

Clay tablet VI of the Enuma Eiish epic states: “The Anunnaki opened their mouths and said to Marduk, their lord: ‘Now, O lord, thou hast caused our deliverance, What shall be our homage to thee? Let us build a shrine whose name shall be called ‘Lo, a chamber for our nightly rest’; let us repose in it! Let us build a throne, a recess for his abode! On the day that we arrive {for the New Year’s festival}we shall repose in it.'”

“You shall name it The Sanctuary.'”
“After they had achieved the building of Esagila, the Anunnaki themselves erected their shrines… all of them gathered… they had built as this dwelling. The gods, his fathers, at this banquet he seated:”

“This is Babylon, the place that is your home! Make merry in its precincts, occupy its broad [places].’ The great gods took their seats. They set up festive drink, sat down to a banquet. After they had made merry within it. In Esagila, the splendid, had performed their rites…”

“Anshar pronounced… May he {Marduk}shepherd the black-headed ones, his creatures. To the end of days, without forgetting, let them acclaim his ways. May he establish for his fathers the great food-offerings; their support they shall furnish, shall tend their sanctuaries. May he cause incense to be smelled… ‘A likeness on earth of what he has wrought in heaven'” (2).

After reading the account of the Tower of Babel in the Enuma Elish epic, one is left with the impression that the Chaldeans actually believed that the “great gods”-Marduk, Esagila, Ea, Anshardescended and banqueted inside the sanctuary rooms of the Babylonian ziggurat, Etemenanki. The pagan priests actually kept a table with chairs served with “food-offerings” and burnt “incense” in the holy abode.

The Enuma Elish epic states that the gods would come at night to abide in the sanctuary or shrine at the top of the Tower of Babel. Even in the fourth century B.C., this belief was prevalent among the Babylonians, according to Herodotus. He writes, “They also declare – but I for my part do not credit it – that the god comes down in person into the chamber, and sleeps upon the couch” (3).

Recall that Herodotus described a “spacious temple” on the eighth story of the Tower of Babylon which contained a “couch of unusual size, richly adorned, with a golden table by its side” (3).

Herodotus’ statement further corroborates the Enuma Elish epic and the book of Revelation’s declaration of Babel and Babylon, respectively, as spiritualistic centers.

The name Babel in Hebrew actually has two meanings: “confusion” and “house of god.” The second meaning is mentioned in the Enuma Elish epic as follows: Clay tablet V of the Enuma Elish epic states; ”When you come up from the Apsu for assembly, You will spend the night therein, (it is there) to receive all of you. When you des[cend] from heaven [for assem]bly, You will spend the night there[in] (it is there) to receive all of you. It will call [its] name [‘Babylon’] (which means) ‘the houses of the great gods” (2).

The Tower of Babel and the zigurrat of Babylon were assembly places for seances. A seance is “a meeting at which spiritualists attempt to make contact with the dead” (15). Thus, Revelation highlights that “Babylon the great… is become the habitation of devils, and the hold of every foul spirit.” Revelation 18:2. Thus, the Tower of Babel as well as the Etemenanki were ancient pagan basilicas.

Counterfeits of Heaven

All in all, the Tower of Babel, like ancient Babylon, were counterfeits of heaven. They sought to create on earth what the Hebrew scriptures describe of heaven. Both the builders of Babel and Babylon, like the prophets who authored the Old Testament, had knowledge of the Oral Bible and had a mental image of heaven’s celestial beauty.

The Enuma Elish epic on tablet VI says that the “stage-tower” and “Babylon” were “a likeness on earth of what he [Marduk] has wrought in heaven” (2).

Elder Henry Dering gave a wonderful exposition of the likeness of Babylon with the heavenly New Jerusalem. Babylon was built like a square. The New Jerusalem was built like a foursquare. Babylon had the hanging gardens. New Jerusalem has the garden of Eden and paradise. Both were built like a square. Babel and Babylon were built on the banks of the river Euphrates and the New Jerusalem on the river of life. Babel and Babylon had a golden altar, table, and throne. The New Jerusalem has streets of gold and walls of crystal. The city of Babylon had multiple doors. The New Jerusalem has 12 doors (17). Here the similarities stop.

Ancient Babel fell. Babylon fell. Modern mystical Babylon will fall. But the New Jerusalem shall abide for ever. God calls His people to leave Babel, Babylon, and spiritual Babylon in preparation to enter the New Jerusalem. Yet the Biblical call has actually a deeper significance. Whereas Babel, Babylon, and mystical Babylon were founded on hell, the New Jerusalem is founded on the righteousness and peace. Jerusalem literally means in Hebrew “city of peace.” Only those who take Babylon out of their hearts will find true peace in Jesus Christ. “Justified by faith we have peace with
God through our Lord Jesus Christ.” Romans 5:1.
AMEN.

References

1. Ada R. Haberson. (1925). The Nineveh Gallery. The Bible and the British Museum. London: Pickering & Inglis, page 42.
2. E.A. Speiser. The Creation Epic. IN: James B. Pritchard. (1975). The Ancient Near East Volume I. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, pages 37-39.
3. Herodotus of Halicarnassus. (c. 445 B.C.). The First Book, Entitled Clio, paragraphs 178-182, pages 176-185. IN: Robert Maynard Hutchins (Editor). (1952). History of Herodotus. Great Books of the Western World. Chicago: Encyclopedia Britannica, Inc., pages 40-41.
4. Flavius Josephus. (c. 93 A.D.). The Antiquities of the Jews, book 1, chapter IV, paragraphs 1-2. IN: William Whiston (1987). The Works of Josephus. Peabody, MA: Hendrickson Publishers, page 30.
5. Sir Lancelot C.L. Brenton. (1851, 1995). The Septuagint with Apocrypha: Greek and English. Peabody, MA: Hendrickson Publishers, Inc.
6. Johannes Gutenberg. (1452-54, 1968). The Gutenberg Bible. Old Testament, volume I. Latin Vulgate Version. Genesis Chapters IX and X. New York: Brussel and Brussel, Inc.
7. The Geneva Bible. (1603). London: Robert Barker, Printer, page 4.
8. Jean-Raymond Lenoir. Traditions Summerienne et Mosaique: Des Origines de L’Homme [Summerian and Mosaic Traditions: the Origens of Man]. IN: Paul Tieche, et al. (1981). Bible et Archeologie [Bible and Archeology]. Saint-Etienne, France: Editions Horvath, pages 33-48.
9. Henry M. Morris. (1976). The Genesis Record. Grand Rapids, Ml: Baker Book House, pages 251-253.
10. Cipriano de Valera (1602). Interpretation de algunas palabras, y nombres propios [The interpretation of a few words and proper names]. Sagrada Biblia [Sacred Bible]. Amsterdam: Lorenzo Jacobi.
11. Adam Clarke, (c. 1823). The Old Testament. Volume 1–Genesis to Deuteronomy. NY: Abingdon-Cokesbury Press, page 87-89.
12. A.K. Grayson. (Translator). The Creation Epic. IN: James B. Pritchard. (1975). The Ancient Near East Volume II. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, pages 1-5.
13. Joan Dates. (1979). Babylon. London: Thames and Hudson, pages 11, 128.
14. Joachim Marzahn. (1993). La Puerta de ishtar en Babilonia [The Ishtar Gate at Babylon]. Mainz, Germany: Verlag Philipp von Zabern, pages 37-38.
15. Judy Pearsall and Bill Trumble [Editors]. (1995). The Oxford English Reference Dictionary. Oxford: Oxford University Press, pages 117, 1306.
16. Ellen G. White. (1958). The Tower of Babel. The Story of Patriarchs and Prophets. Washington, D.C.: Review and Herald Publishing Association, pages 117-124.
17. Henry Dering. (2000). The Tower of Babel. Lecture given on Saturday, September 2, 2000, at the Eastern Field Conference in Goshen, VA.
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